Module Twelve

The Gospel of Luke

12.1 Introduction

The Gospel of Luke has the distinction of being the longest writing in the New Testament. It is written in an eloquent and sophisticated style, rivaling some of the greatest Roman literary works of that period, such as Suetonius and Plutarch. Unlike the other writers of the New Testament, who were Jewish, the author of Luke was a Gentile, who may have been a convert to Judaism before he adopted Christianity.

Fig. 12.1: 10th century Byzantine illumination of the evangelist Luke, British Library.

Most scholars today believe that Luke’s Gospel and the book of Acts should be viewed as two volumes that comprise a single narrative, which begins in Nazareth with the message of hope about a savior of the world and culminate decades later with the unhindered preaching of the gospel by Paul in the center of the empire. The two volumes are commonly referred to as Luke-Acts and comprise about a quarter of the New Testament canon. Since Luke and Acts are separated writings in the canon and may well be different genres, they are treated as separate chapters, as is the custom in most introductions to the New Testament. From a literary point of view, their separation is disruptive. Since many professors teach Luke and Acts together, we have elected not to follow the canonical order and placed Acts immediately after this chapter. 

This separation of Luke-Acts into two chapters creates some overlap, especially in relation to the broader plot, authorship, purpose, and the theological themes. While there are distinct features found in both writings, they are dependent on one another. The Gospel constantly looks ahead to Acts, and Acts tends to assume the story of Jesus in the Gospel. Foresight and hindsight affect the way that the author communicates his material. For example, the portrayals of Jesus as the savior of the world at the beginning of the Gospel begin to be realized in the missionary activity in the book of Acts. Conversely, the successful preaching in the book of Acts is rooted in the life and teachings of Jesus in the Gospel.

12.2 Sources

From where did the author of Luke get his material? Unlike the other Gospels, the author of Luke introduces his narrative by referring to prior accounts about Jesus, which were undoubtedly influential in the formation of his own account. Luke writes,

Since many have undertaken to set down an orderly account of the events that have been fulfilled among us, just as they were handed on to us by those who from the beginning were eyewitnesses and servants of the word, I too decided, after investigating everything carefully from the very first, to write an orderly account for you, most excellent Theophilus, so that you may know the truth concerning the things about which you have been instructed. (Luke 1:1–4, NRSV)

While it is not entirely clear, the author seems to be referring to multiple sources. Some of these were probably in oral form, consisting of sayings of Jesus and short vignettes about his ministry. Others were most likely in written form. It is the latter that have captured the attention of modern scholars.

Fig. 12.2: 7th century illustration of Luke and Mark found on the cover of the Freer Gospels (Codex Washingtonianus), Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. 
For more information on the painting process, go to https://www.asia.si.edu/exhibitions/online/ITB/html/F1906.297-8.htm

There are three main sources that can be detected in Luke. The first is the Gospel of Mark. While it is not as prominent in Luke as it is in Matthew, it is still substantial, accounting for about forty percent of Luke’s content. The author of Luke probably had a copy of Mark in front of him, but we are not sure if it was exactly the same as the one used by the author of Matthew. 

Much of Luke’s narrative sequence also seems to rely on Mark. However, as with Matthew, there are a few significant departures. For example, Luke omits all of the material from Mark 6:45-8:26 (the so-called “Great Omission”) and Mark 9:41-10:12 (the so-called “Little Omission”). It is not clear why the author of Luke omitted these sections. One possibility is that they interfered with his geographical arrangement, which has Jesus traveling more or less directly from Galilee to Jerusalem. 

The second source is Q (German Quelle, which means “source”) or as it is sometimes called, the Q Gospel—the hypothetical Jesus material that is common only to Matthew and Luke. Unlike the author of Matthew who arranged the Q to correspond to his overall five-fold structure, the author of Luke is believed to have preserved the original order of the Q material. It comprises about twenty percent of Luke, and much of the ethical teachings in the Gospel.

Fig. 12.3: Rembrandt, “The Prodigal Son,” 1662. Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg.

The third source is variously called “special Lukan material,” “Luke’s special sayings material,” “L Source” or simply designated as the letter “L.” This is the material that is unique to Luke, and is not found in Mark, Matthew, or Q. Unlike Matthew’s special material (“M Source”), which comprises a small portion of that Gospel, Luke’s “L Source” may have played a much more significant role. Since Luke’s unique content consist of a staggering forty percent of the Gospel, scholars speculate about how much the author actually relied on the hypothetical “L Source.” Did the author rely primarily on the “L Source” or is this large portion the product of his own hand? Or, is it an amalgam of the two? We know that the author of Luke has done a masterful job in amalgamating Mark and Q. At present, there is no definitive way of reconstructing this portion of the Gospel. 

Regardless, some of the most well-known and beloved passages in the New Testament are found within this content, such as the parable of the Good Samaritan, the parable of Lazarus and the Rich Man, the parable of the Prodigal Son, the Song of Mary (called “The Magnificat”), and the story of the young Jesus at the temple. 

Info Box 12.1: Where did the Christmas story come from? Notice the similarities and differences between the two accounts. 

Similarities
Jesus is born in Bethlehem during the days of Herod but spends his youth in Nazareth (Matt. 2:1, 5–6, 23; Luke 2:4–6, 11, 15, 39). Jesus belongs to the family of David. (Matt. 1:1, 6; Luke 2:4; 3:31). Mary is the mother of Jesus, and Joseph is his legal father (Matt. 1:16–21, 25; Luke 1:35; 2:16, 41, 48). Jesus is born from a miraculous virginal conception announced in advance by an angel (Matt. 1:18–25; Luke 1:26–38). The name “Jesus” is chosen by God (Matt. 1:21; Luke 1:31). The family of Jesus must undertake difficult travel due to oppressive political rule (Matt. 2:7–8, 12–18; Luke 2:1–7). Jesus’ birth is presented as the fulfillment of scriptural promises to Israel (Matt. 1:22–23; 2:5–6; Luke 1:54–55). Even at birth, Jesus is rejected by some and inspires worship in others (Matt. 2:10, 16–18; Luke 2:7, 20).

Differences

Fig. 12.4: Click to enlarge

12.3 Authorship

As is the case with Matthew and Mark, Luke is anonymous. While the Gospel contains no direct reference to its author, it contains a few indirect clues. First, we know from the prologue (1:1-4) that he was not an eyewitness to Jesus. He attempted to research prior accounts before writing his own.

Fig. 12.5: Marble bust of the Greek philosopher Epicurus (3rd century BCE), who was the of the Epicurean school of philosophy which advocated peace, freedom from fear, and that belief should be tested by observation. Capitoline Museum, Rome.

Second, we know that the author was well educated. His use of the Greek language was far more polished than that of the other Gospel writers. This is evident in his extensive vocabulary and refined style. There are hundreds of words in the Gospel and Acts that appear nowhere else in the New Testament. His style of writing is sophisticated and varied. He begins his Gospel in a classical style (1:1-4), continues to the end of Chapter Two with a Semitic style, and completes the balance of his work in an erudite Hellenistic style, which at times resembles the Septuagint and at other times some of the greatest classical writers, such as the Greek poet Homer and the Roman historian Virgil. Some have even compared Luke to Epicurean and Stoic philosophical writings.

Fig. 12.6: 3rd century mosaic of the Latin poet Virgil, holding a volume of his Aenid. He is seated between Clio (representing history) and Melpomene (representing tragedy). Bardo Museum, Tunis.

Finally, we can determine that the author was well familiar with the Septuagint. In addition to adapting its style, he quotes from it extensively. Most scholars, however, do not identify him as a Jew. Rather, he is frequently described as a Gentile who embraced Judaism prior to his conversion to Christianity. Unlike Matthew, who clearly conveys a Jewish bias, Luke tells the story from a broader ethnic perspective. The author deliberately portrays Jesus as the savior of the world; he is familiar with Greco-Roman literature; he seems to address God-fearers in both volumes; and he was probably an associate of the Apostle Paul, but he is not listed among Paul’s Jewish “fellow workers” (Col 4:10-14).

Info Box 12.2: Did Luke Know Jesus?
In light of Luke’s prologue (1:1-4), most scholars agree that Luke was not an eyewitness to Jesus’ life. At the end of the fourth century, however, Epiphanius, the bishop of Salamis, Cyprus, believed that Luke was among the seventy-two who were sent out by Jesus in Luke 10. Epiphanius writes, “For Luke was given this commission. He too was one of the seventy-two who had been scattered because of the Savior’s saying. But he was brought back to the Lord by Paul and told to issue his Gospel” (Panarion 5.11.6). This view did not seem to be shared by other Church Fathers. Tertullian (d. 225), the prolific North African Christian writer, reflects the consensus that Luke was an apostolic man, like Mark, but not an apostle (e.g. Against Marcion 4.2.1-2).

12.3.1. Arguments for Lukan Authorship

Since the second century, when the four canonical Gospels began to circulate together, Luke-Acts has been attributed to a person named Luke. The arguments in favour of Luke’s authorship have been based on internal and external evidence. Internal evidence refers to the New Testament itself, whereas external evidence refers to testimony found in literature outside the New Testament.

Fig. 12.7: Guido Reni, “Saint Luke,” 1621. Bob Jones University, Greenville, S. Carolina.

Much of the discussion concerning internal evidence focuses on the so-called “we passages” in the book of Acts (16:10–17; 20:5–15; 21:1–18; 27:1–28:16) where the narrator suddenly transitions from the third-person to the first-person plural. These are passages where the author identifies himself as Paul’s fellow traveler. The narrator’s references to “we” certainly include Paul and the author of Acts, but may also include other companions. These references are often linked with Paul’s mention of Luke in select lists of fellow workers, where he is identified as “Luke the beloved physician” in Col 4:14, “Luke the fellow worker” in Philemon 24, simply “Luke” in 2 Tim 4:11, and possibly “Lucius” in Rom 16:21. While we are not sure whether these passages refer to the same person, most discussions of authorship assume that they do.

Fig. 12.8: Icon of St. Luke the evangelist.

Some have argued that the use of medical terms in both Luke and Acts is consistent with the description of Luke as a physician in Col 4:14. This argument, however, is weak since many writers in the ancient world who were not physicians also used medical terms in their writings. The use medical terminology probably reflects the author’s literary sophistication and education rather than his vocation. For example, Luke speaks of a “high” fever, whereas Matt and Mark speak only of a fever (Luke 4:38; Matt 8:14; Mark 1:30). Nevertheless, to this day, Luke continues to be the patron saint of physicians and surgeons.

Fig. 12.9:  The ending of Luke and the beginning of John form Papyrus Bodmer XIV (p75), 175-225 CE. Vatican Library, Rome. Of the 144 pages, 102 have survived, containing Luke 3:18-24:53 and large portions of John 1-15.

The external evidence for Lukan authorship is significant. Christian tradition from an early period unanimously testifies to Luke the physician as the author of Luke-Acts. There is also broad testimony that he was Paul’s companion. One of the earliest references to Lukan authorship is found in the writings of Irenaeus, the bishop of Lyon (d. 202), who writes “Luke also the companion of Paul, recorded in a book the gospel preached by Paul” (Against Heresies 3.1.1). By the beginning of the third century CE church leaders like Clement of Alexandria and Tertullian ascribed the third Gospel to the hand of Luke, the companion of Paul with absolute certainty. 

The early manuscript evidence is also strong. Our earliest manuscript of Luke, the Bodmer Papyrus XIV (also catalogued as p75), which dates to approximately 175-225 CE, contains the subscription “the Gospel According to Luke.” Later manuscripts have similar attributions. 

12.3.2 Arguments Against Lukan Authorship

Some modern scholars are not convinced that Luke, the companion of Paul, wrote the third Gospel. They do not necessarily propose an alternate author, but argue that the internal evidence does not support the traditional view. It is argued that there are far too many differences between Luke-Acts and Paul’s letters to warrant a close relationship. The author of Luke-Acts probably did not even know Paul. While it is probable that Paul knew a fellow worker named Luke, he was not the author of Luke-Acts. The following list of differences between Luke-Acts (particularly Acts) and Paul’s letters is substantial.  

Fig. 12.10 Valentin de Boulogne, “Saint Paul Writing His Epistles" 17th century, Blaffer Foundaion Collection, Houston.

• Acts does not promote Paul’s theological agenda, such as a denunciation of the works of the law and the advancement of salvation by faith through grace. 

• Acts has a different theological timeline than that of Paul. For Luke, the dawn of the Church age is the beginning of a new era. For Paul, the end of the age is imminent.

• Acts never mentions that Paul wrote letters.

• Acts makes no mention of Paul’s tensions with Peter and the Judaizers. Instead, Acts describes his relations with Peter, James, and the Jerusalem group as cordial.

• In his letters, Paul is adamant that he is an Apostle. In Acts, Paul is called an Apostle only once, alongside Barnabas (14:14). Moreover, the description of an apostle in Acts (1:21-22, 26) does not fit Paul.

• Acts portrays Paul as a miracle worker. Paul, however, does not mention these miracles in his letters.

• Paul makes no mention of his Damascus Road experience. In Acts, it is mentioned three times (9, 22, 26).

• References to the first-person plural, or the “we passages,” do not necessarily indicate that the author accompanied Paul on his travels. It is not by accident that all of the “we passages” are connected with maritime travel. The author uses the first-person plural to indicate that he shared in similar experiences as a mariner, such as storms and shipwrecks. Identifying with Paul’s experiences is not idiosyncratic, but gives credibility to the author’s role as a pragmatic Hellenistic historian. It was common among ancient historians to regard travel as an obligation of their craft. Odysseus’ famous journeys served as a touchstone for later historians, such as Polybius (d. 118 BCE), Diodorus of Sicily (d. 30 BCE), and Lucian (d. 180 CE). See the following chapter, on the book of Acts, for further discussion on the use of the “we” passages.

Fig. 12.11: Roman mosaic of Odysseus. 2-4th century CE, Bardo National Museum, Tunis.

12.4 Date of Writing

12.4.1 After 70 CE

The Gospel of Luke is most commonly dated between 85 CE and 90 CE. Several reasons are offered in support of this dating, though none stands alone. The weight of the argument rests on their cumulative force.

Fig. 12.12: “The Destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem,” Francesco Hayez, 1867, Gallery of Modern Art, Venice.

First, since Mark is frequently regarded as Luke’s source, it stands to reason that Luke post-dates Mark. As was discussed in Chapter Ten, Mark was composed around 70 CE, during the Jewish war with Rome or soon after it. Second, since Luke’s depiction of the destruction of Jerusalem contains more detail than Mark and Matthew, many scholars assume that Luke must have been familiar with the events of the Jewish War (e.g. Luke 19:41–44; 21:20–24). Luke also seems to be more focused on Jerusalem rather than the temple. Specifically, unlike the other Gospels, Luke’s Jesus predicts, “Days will come upon you when your enemies will put up an embankment before you, and surround you, and hem you in on every side” (19:43); “when you see Jerusalem surrounded by armies, then realize that her desolation is at hand” (21:20); and “they will fall by the edge of the sword, and will be led captive into all the nations; and Jerusalem will be trampled underfoot by the Gentiles until the times of the Gentiles is fulfilled” (21:24). Third, the characterizing of Paul as a hero figure in the book of Acts would have typically required at least a decade to develop after his death, which is usually dated in mid-sixties. 

12.4.2 Before 70 CE

Very few modern scholars believe that Luke-Acts was written before 70 CE. Those who argue for an early dating begin with two assumptions. The first is that Acts is a sequential history that spans the first three decades of the church. Since Acts ends with Paul in Rome, awaiting trial, Luke-Acts must have been written prior to Paul’s death. Surely Luke would have recorded Paul’s execution (or release) if it had happened. The theological character of Acts and its genre is discussed in more detail in the next chapter.

Fig. 12.13: Nero, Capitoline Museum, Rome.

The second assumption is that if Luke makes no mention of an event, it has not yet happened. More specifically, since there is no mention of the Neronian persecution of Christians (64-68 CE), the destruction of Jerusalem (70 CE), the martyrdom of James (c. 62 CE) or that Paul wrote letters, it is assumed that these events have not yet happened when Acts was completed. That there is no mention of Paul’s letters is of particular concern because the later that Acts is dated, the harder it is to account for their absence since the letters increased in popularity with each passing decade.

Other reasons for an early dating have been offered, but they are highly circumstantial. For example, some have noted that the description of Rome in Acts reflects a setting that has very little, if any, knowledge of Christianity as yet. Others have claimed that since the Jewish-Gentile relations in Acts parallels Paul’s letters, they must be in temporal proximity to each other.

12.5 Place of Writing

Since the Gospel of Luke and Acts were probably written in the same location, they are here treated together. Scholars are agreed that Luke-Acts did not originate in Palestine and most likely did not target a Jewish audience. There are simply too many omissions that would have concerned Jews from that region. For example, in contrast to his counterparts, Luke does not include 

• the same level of interest in contrasting Pharisaic interpretations of the law and those of Jesus (e.g. Matthew 5-7, cf. Luke 6:20-38)
• Jesus’ sayings about false ritual piety (Matt 6:1-8, 16-18)
• controversies about clean and unclean practices (Mark 7:1-23)
• the narrative about the Canaanite woman (Mark 7:24-30)

Pinpointing the exact location of Luke-Acts, however, has not shared the same level of agreement. Three of the most prominent locations that have been proposed are Rome, Antioch, and more generally Achaia (Greece).

Fig. 12.14: On this map, the cities where Luke may have written his Gospel and Acts are labeled in red. Rome is on the far left in Italy. Pisidian Antioch is in the province of Galatia. Syrian Antioch is in the province of Syria. Achaia is the province in the middle of the map. Courtesy of Accordance Bible Software.

12.5.1 Rome

Since Luke-Acts concludes in Rome, with Paul freely preaching the gospel as he awaits trial, it has been proposed that Luke wrote his two-volume work to the Christians in that city. This traditional view has little appeal today for two primary reasons. First, the ending of the saga in Rome has tremendous symbolic significance, and is not incorporated into the narrative for the purpose of isolating the author’s location. Since Rome was understood symbolically as the center of not only the empire, but also the entire world, Paul’s unhindered preaching of the gospel represents the success of Christian evangelism. As we trace the plot, Paul overcomes every obstacle in the quest to bring the gospel to the center of civilization.

Fig. 12.15: Roman Forum.

Second, if the location of the author is tied to Paul’s two-year stay in Rome at the end of Acts, it is strange that there is no mention of Christian persecution during this period. Paul would have been in Rome in the mid-60s during the reign of Nero, who was well known for ordering atrocities against Christians.

12.5.2 Antioch

Fig. 12.16: Roman road near Antioch, Tall Aqibrin, Syria.

Antioch has been a common proposal. Early non-canonical Christian literature contains sparse references to Luke being “from Antioch.” There is no way, however, to verify these sporadic claims. Even if they are accurate, and Luke either originated from there or resided there, or both, they do not necessarily tie Antioch to the location of the writing. Critics also argue that if Luke wrote to the Christians in Antioch, we would expect to see the same concerns in his Gospel that we see in Matthew, which most likely was written there. Unlike Luke’s audience, Matthew’s Christians are Jews who are immersed in ritual and legal controversy. Luke’s Gospel tends to reflect a Gentile audience, probably God-fearers. 

12.5.3 Achaia

Fig. 12.17: Sestertius of Hadrian, who is pictured raising a kneeling Achaia in celebration of the province’s inclusion in the empire, 134-38 CE.

Achaia (or Achaea) was a Roman province located in the southern part of what is today Greece. Like the other options, the evidence in support of this location is sparse. Proponents often refer to the so-called Anti-Marcionite Prologues, which claim that Luke came from Antioch and wrote his Gospel “in the regions of Achaia.” These Prologues were prefaces to select New Testament writings written in response to Marcion of Sinope (85-160 CE), who was one of the first compilers of a list of authoritative Christian writings (see Chapter Seven). While this is an early reference, we unfortunately have no information about the breadth or circulation of this tradition.

Proponents of this view also point to Luke’s focus on the Gentiles, which is clearly present when compared to the other Synoptic Gospels. The examples are numerous, but few are particularly noteworthy. First, Acts 28:25-28 is often cited as evidence that Luke-Acts targets a Gentile audience. Luke writes,

So they disagreed with each other; and as they were leaving, Paul made one further statement: “The Holy Spirit was right in saying to your ancestors through the prophet Isaiah, ‘Go to this people and say, You will indeed listen, but never understand, and you will indeed look, but never perceive. For this people’s heart has grown dull, and their ears are hard of hearing, and they have shut their eyes; so that they might not look with their eyes, and listen with their ears, and understand with their heart and turn—and I would heal them.’ Let it be known to you then that this salvation of God has been sent to the Gentiles; they will listen.” (NRSV)

Second, unlike Mark, Luke-Acts contains no Aramaic expressions, place names, or cultural references. Instead, Luke-Acts contains expressions that would have been commonplace among Gentiles. If Luke’s audience included Jewish-Christians, they probably were not from Palestine. 

Third, more than the other Synoptic Gospel, Luke has a Hellenistic character. For example, both the genealogy of Jesus and the infancy narrative reflect common features found in Hellenistic biographies. The same can be said about Luke’s presentation of the passion of Jesus. Unlike the other evangelists, Luke surprisingly omits a number of references to the suffering of Jesus, which corresponds to the Hellenistic propensity to play on the reader’s expected emotions. As in Hellenistic biographies, Luke surprises the reader by minimizing data that the reader expects to find. Also, Luke’s presentation of Jesus’ parables of the Wedding Feast and the Great Banquet can be compared to Hellenistic portrayals of sages lecturing at a symposium (see Luke 14:1-24).

Fig. 12.18: Tomb fresco of a Greek symposium found in the old Roman city of Paestum. 5th century BCE.

While there is no agreement on a specific location, many scholars agree that Luke probably intended a wider audience than the other evangelists. So, instead of focusing on a particular community of Christians, Luke may well have intended a circulation that spanned the empire. If this was the case, then the search for the location may in the end be less significant than it is for the other Gospels. 

12.6 Purpose

Since neither Luke nor Acts contains an explicit statement or explanation telling the reader why these two volumes were written, we are once again faced with the problem of reconstruction. In a predominantly illiterate world, why did the evangelist pick up his stylus and begin to write? Moreover, why did he write when previous accounts about Jesus were already circulating? There has been no shortage of reconstructions.

12.6.1 Defense of Christianity to the Romans

Fig. 12.19: “St. Paul’s Pillar,” Paphos, Cypress. According to later tradition, Elymas the magician (Acts 13:4-12) was a Jewish official who ordered Paul to be tied to the pillar and whipped (2 Cor 11:24).

One of the more interesting proposals is that Luke-Acts was written to serve as a defense of Christianity to the Romans. In addition to the story ending with Paul preaching freely in Rome, approximately one quarter of Acts is taken up with Paul interacting with Roman officials, and receiving their approval. When Luke is brought into the mix, Christianity is presented as a religion for the Gentiles. Christianity’s Jewish origin adds to its credibility because the Romans tended to appreciate religions that were old. Some have seized upon this idea and argued that Luke-Acts is a legal narrative written as a defense for Paul’s evangelistic activity. Since both volumes are addressed to the “most excellent Theophilus” (Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1), it is further speculated that he was none other than the magistrate officiating at Paul’s upcoming trial.

Two major obstacles, however, stand in the way of this intriguing view. First, since adherents of this view ascribe a late dating to Luke-Acts (mid-80s), it raises the question why Acts does not report the results of Paul’s trial in Rome. Was there a third volume planned? Second, some have responded that this view does not adequately explain why the Roman officials are repeatedly depicted as weak before Jewish authorities. 

12.6.2 Evangelizing the God-Fearers

A proposal that has received considerable attention is that Luke wrote to introduce Christianity to God-fearers. These were Gentiles who were attracted to Judaism. They were drawn to the God of Israel, participated in rituals, worshipped in the synagogue, and accepted many of the ethical values of Judaism, but they did not undergo circumcision. John Nolland, one of the major proponents of this view, has argued that Luke’s God-fearers reached a crossroads when Christianity was presented to them. Christianity offered God-fearers the true fulfillment of Judaism, allowing them to maintain all of its attractive features, without abandoning their Gentile identity. At the same time, the God-fearers would have faced resistance from their Jewish communities because Christianity was considered a perversion of Judaism. Moreover, God-fearers would have experienced pressure from their Jewish communities to fulfill their new Jewish faith by being circumcised.

Fig. 12.20: “Nativity of our Lord Christ,” Jacopo Torriti, 1296. Mosaic, Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome.

In order to show how Christianity is the fulfillment of Judaism, Luke anchors Jesus in his Jewish context. Even before he is born, Jewish characters in the story predict how Jesus will be the savior of the world, which will include both Jews and Gentiles. The ministry of Jesus is portrayed as the fulfillment of the scriptures. Later in Acts, the early Christians are presented as the successors of Jesus, who continue his ministry. They take on the identity of the new Israel, which extends from national Israel, and like Jesus they participate in the fulfillment of the scriptures.

Accordingly, the addressee Theophilus may also provide a clue. While he could have been a specific person, the name itself suspiciously conveys a reference to a God-fearer. When the name is divided into its two parts (theos = God, philos = friend), we emerge with “friend of God,” which would have been an appropriate designation for a God-fearer. If Theophilus represents God-fearers in general, then Luke’s statement in Luke 1:4 (“So that you may realize what certainty you have of the instruction you have received”) can be viewed as a programmatic clue for the entire work.

12.6.3 Pastoral Affirmation to the Gentiles

Jewish rejection of the gospel created a profound problem for thoughtful Gentile believers. Since the Jews who rejected Jesus were no longer considered to be the people of God, Gentile Christians would have wondered if God had abandoned his promise given to Israel through Abraham (Gen12:1-3). Did God betray his people and his word in scripture? While this anxiety about God’s faithfulness would have undoubtedly resonated among the Jews, it was particularly pronounced among the Gentiles since their traditions abounded with the inconsistencies of the gods. If God turned away from the Jews, could he not all the more turn away from the Gentiles? Luke’s two-volume narrative is thought by some to be a response to this anxiety.

Fig. 12.21: Mosaic of Neptune, god of the sea, with the four women representing the four seasons, 2nd century. Bardo National Museum, Tunis.

According to this proposal, Luke tries to justify the faithfulness of God by showing how events from Jesus to the church unfolded consecutively “in an orderly manner.” He begins by showing how the revelation of God came to Israel through Jesus, who was destined to be the savior of the world. The rejection of Jesus by the Jews effectively cut them off from God’s promise of saving the world, originally made to Abraham. Luke sees the acceptance of Jesus among the Gentiles as the fulfillment of God’s promise. As such, Luke has often been regarded as an apologetic historian who saw himself writing the continuation of the biblical story, not so much to defend the Christian movement, but rather to defend God’s consistency throughout history. 

12.7 Themes

Approximately half of the material in Luke has no parallel in the other Gospels. Seventeen of Luke’s parables are unique. Jesus’ inaugural sermon, which inaugurates his ministry, is unparalleled. The words of Jesus from the cross are found nowhere else. The ascension of Jesus is also unique to the Lukan tradition (occurring also in Acts 1:6-11). This large quantity of unique material contains several unique themes, such as the prominence of women, the repeated mention of Samaritans, the centrality of Jerusalem as Jesus’ ultimate destination, the salvation of the world, and an overall emphasis on social justice. 

Info Box 12.3: Material Unique to Luke
Dedication to Theophilus (1:1-4), Promised birth of John the Baptist (1:5-25), Announcement of Jesus’ birth to Mary (1:26-38), Mary’s visit with Elizabeth (1:39-56), Birth of John the Baptist (1:57-80), Birth of Jesus in a manger with Shepherds (2:1-20), Jesus being presented in the temple (2:21-38), Jesus’ childhood visit to Jerusalem (2:41-52), John the Baptist’s reply to questions (3:10-14), Genealogy of Jesus from Adam (3:23-38), Good News to the poor (4:14-23, 25-30), Miracle of catching fish (5:1-11), Raising of the widow’s son (7:11-17), Encounter with homeless woman (7:36-50), Parable of two debtors (7:40-43), Ministering women (8:1-3), Rejection by a Samaritan village (9:51-56), Return of the Seventy (10:17-20), Parable of the Good Samaritan (10:29-37), Mary and Martha (10:38-42), Parable of friend at midnight (11:5-8), Parable of the rich fool (12:13-21), Parable of heavy and light beatings (12:47-48), Parable of barren tree (13:1-9), Healing of crippled women (13:10-17), Healing of man with dropsy (14:1-6), Two parables for guests and hosts (14:7-14), Two parables on counting the cost (14:28-33), Parable of the lost coin (15:8-10), Parable of the prodigal son (15:11-32), Parable of the shrewd manager (16:1-12), Parable of rich man and Lazarus (16:19-31), Cleansing of the ten lepers (17:11-19), Parable of widow and judge (18:1-8), Parable of Pharisee and tax collector (18:9-14), Story of Zacchaeus (19:1-10), Jesus weeping over Jerusalem (19:41-44), Reason for Peter’s denial (22:31-32), Two swords (22:35-38), Jesus before Herod (23:6-12), Pilate declares Jesus innocent (23:13-16), Sayings associated with Jesus’ death (23:28-31, 34, 43, 46), Jesus appears on road to Emmaus (24:13-35), Jesus post-resurrection appearance (24:36-49), Jesus’ ascension (24:50-53).  Adapted from M. A. Powell, Introducing the New Testament.

12.7.1 Worship and Prayer

Fig. 12.22: The remaining wall of Herod‘s Temple is one of the most revered places of prayer for Jews and Christians.

There are twenty references in Luke to people worshipping or giving thanks to God (e.g. 1:8; 1:46, 64; 2:13; 7:16; 18:43). Stylistically, Luke begins and ends the Gospel with people worshipping at the temple in Jerusalem. Some of the hymns are extraordinary compositions of poetry, which have played an important a part in Christian liturgy for almost two millennia. None of the Gospels compares to Luke‘s profound expressions of reverence placed on the lips of his characters, like those of Mary and Zechariah. One of the clearest examples of Luke’s emphasis on worship and reverence is found in the story of the healing of the ten lepers. After they are healed, only the Samaritan leper expresses deep gratitude to God. Jesus chastises the others for their indifference (see Luke 17:11-19). 

 The theme of prayer also extends to Luke’s portrayal of Jesus in ways that are not found in the other Gospels. For example, Jesus prays before choosing his disciples (6:12), before asking the disciples about the crowds (9:18), and before Peter’s denial (22:32). Jesus prays during his baptism (3:21) and during his transfiguration (9:28). Jesus frequently encourages his disciples to pray (18:1; 21:36; 22:40), and even tells them parables about the importance of prayer (11:5-8; 18:1-14).

Info Box 12.4: Luke’s Hymns 
Luke’ poetical sections, called hymns, were probably sung or recited in early Christian services, just as they are used in liturgies around the world to this day. Most Christians have come to know these by their Latin designations: Ave Maria (1:42-45), Magnificat (1:46-55), Benedictus (1:67-79), Gloria in Excelsis (2:14), Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32).

12.7.2 The Reversal of the Socially Marginalized

Unlike the other evangelists, Luke takes a special interest in the marginalized people groups of his day, such as women, children, the poor, and the outcasts. Jesus is portrayed as an advocate for social justice and a critic of the establishment’s treatment of the vulnerable. His social criticisms are rooted in God’s role as the compassionate householder of the world. Jesus is not advocating equality for all in some modern socialist sense, but rather that all are respected and cared for within the household economy.

Fig. 12.23: Wall painting of a Eucharist meal where all of the provisions are shared. The same practice of distribution was practiced in Jewish household meals, 3rd century. Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome.

Luke’s attention to the marginalized is cleverly developed in what is sometimes called the “Great Reversal.” As a social critic, Jesus challenges prevailing norms and values by proclaiming the good news of salvation, which is offered to all. From the beginning of the story Jesus is portrayed as the divine agent who comes to enact the reversal. Traditional security, complacency, and social division, which is propagated by the religious elite is confronted head on, resulting in a series of conflicts throughout the Gospel.

Ironically, the injustice that Luke’s Jesus confronts inevitably befalls him as well. As a victim of miscarried justice, he pays the ultimate price at the hands of the establishment he confronts. Unlike the other victims of injustice, Jesus is vindicated by God through resurrection and reverses a fate of hopelessness. The reversal is particularly evident in Jesus’ association with women and the poor.

Women

Fig. 12.24: “Annunciation,” Sandro Botticelli, 1489. Uffizi Gallery, Florence.

Luke’s inclusion of women is unparalleled among the Gospels. At the beginning of the story Mary is the first to receive the good news of salvation that will come into the world through her son (1:24-38). At the end of the story, women are the first to arrive at the empty tomb and are told by the two angels that Jesus has risen. In sharing this message with the disciples, they become the first preachers of the resurrection (24:1-12). One of the most poignant examples that confronts the religious expectations of the day occurs when Jesus visits the home of a certain Mary and Martha. In customary fashion, Martha attends to the prescribed duties of her gender, but Mary sits at Jesus’s feet and listens to his teachings (10:38-42), for which she is praised. To the modern reader who is not aware of first-century Jewish roles and expectations, this little episode may not have much impact, but to the reader who has some awareness of the social gender distinctions, Mary’s actions are nothing short of jaw dropping. Sitting at a rabbi’s or teacher’s feet implied that one is expected to carry on that teaching. We know from later Jewish literature, however, that rabbis opposed teaching women and women teachers.

In addition to these examples of reversal, there are more female characters in Luke than in any of the other Gospels, such as Mary Magdalene, Joanna, Susanna (8:2-3), the widow of Nain (7:11-12), the disabled woman (13:11), and the sinner who anointed Jesus’ feet (7:37-50). Luke seems to intentionally go out of his way to mention women as often as he mentions men, frequently in parallel to one another.

Info Box

Fig 12.25: Is Luke intentional in his parallel references to men and women? 

The Poor

Of all the disadvantaged groups in Luke’s Gospel, the poor receive the most attention. Jesus begins his ministry with a declaration that he has come “to bring good news to the poor” (4:18). Throughout Luke, poverty is viewed as a consequence of injustice. The poor struggle because of the exploitation of the rich. Jesus, however, not only criticizes the injustice around him, he challenges the justification for it by reversing social expectations. In first-century Jewish society, wealth, health, and power were often viewed as blessings stemming from divinely approved behavior, which may even included one’s ancestors. Conversely, illnesses and poverty were viewed as justified consequences to sinful behavior, which may have extended to one’s parents or recent ancestors. It is similar to how people in the West today commonly speak about karma.

In Jesus’ reversal, the rich who need no consolation, who seek to justify themselves, and who respond to Jesus with rejection and testing are themselves rejected, “cast down,” and cut off from the blessings of the coming kingdom of God. The poor, the physically disabled, and the ostracized (e.g. the tax collectors and the sinners), who were socially relegated to lower strata of society, are consoled, blessed, and accepted into the coming kingdom. Jesus’ social criticism is nothing short of subverting Jewish values and mores of righteousness, power, and blessing. 

This theme is pervasive. Blessings for the poor and warnings to the rich are found throughout the Gospel in various forms. They are found in quotations from scripture (1:53). They are found in Jesus’ interactions with the rich (19:1-10). They are found in Jesus’ sermons (6:20-21; 24-25). They are found in Jesus’ parables, such as the parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus (16:19-31) and the parable of the Rich Fool (12:16-21). Most often, the theme is developed in the context of Jesus’ sayings about the kingdom of God. This is where one encounters many of the reversals of social expectations (e.g. 3:11; 14:13; 18:22; and 19:8).

Fig. 12.26: Mosaic of slaves, who were the poorest class of people in Roman society, 2nd century. Bardo National Museum, Tunis.

In addition to women and the poor, other marginalized people groups also play a role in the narrative. For example, Jesus refers to children when speaking about faith (9:47; 10:21; 17:2; 18:16). The shepherds receive the message from the angels about Jesus’ birth (2:8-20). The tax collectors and sinners attend a banquet for Jesus (5:30). Even the character of a prodigal son plays a positive role (15:11-32).

Info Box 12.6: Comparing Jesus’ Sermon in Matthew and Luke
The emphasis on the poor is especially noticeable when Luke is read alongside parallel passages from the other Synoptics. For example, compare Matthew’s “Blessed are the poor in spirit for theirs is the kingdom of heaven” (5:3) in the Sermon on the Mount and Luke’s “Blessed are the poor because yours is the kingdom of God” (6:20) in the Sermon on the Plain. Why didn’t Luke include “in spirit”?

12.7.3 Salvation for the World

Luke stands apart from the other evangelists in his uses of the noun “salvation” and the verb “to save.” Unlike Mark and Matthew, he even refers to Jesus as “savior.”  With so much attention paid to salvation, some scholars have come to see this theme as the key to Luke’s theology.

The New Adam

Luke develops this theme by first rooting it in the history of God’s plan for the world. Using the scriptures as his framework, he sees the fall of Adam (hence all humanity) in the creation story restored in the coming of Christ, the second Adam. It is the quintessential salvation story of paradise lost and paradise restored. Jesus, through his obedience, brings about the dawn of a new humanity for all who are faithful to him. But where does this leave Israel in the salvation story? Luke does not develop Israel’s election other than to emphasize that salvation is offered to the world through the representation of Israel, namely messiah. If one extrapolates the role of Israel in light of Paul, then Luke may well have understood the election of Israel as a means through which the world would be saved. Since Israel failed in her vocation to save the world, her representative, Jesus Messiah, fulfills her role. 

Fig. 12.27: Mosaic of the Temptation of Christ, 12th century. Duomo di Monreale, Sicily.

Luke’s portrayal of Jesus as the second Adam is developed in subtle ways. One of the most poignant examples is found in Luke’s temptation scene, which immediately follows his genealogy. Unlike Matthew, who begins his genealogy with Abraham and ends with Jesus, Luke begins with Jesus and ends with Adam, “the son of God” (3:38). In Luke’s temptation account, Jesus is immediately identified as the “son of God” by the devil. In two of the three temptations, the devil entices Jesus by saying, “if you are the son of God…” (4:3; 4:9). Unlike the original temptation account in Genesis, Jesus as the second Adam perseveres and is victorious over the devil. Soon after the temptation account, the demons identify Jesus as the “son of God” (4:41). Later in the transfiguration account, Jesus is intimately called “my son” by the divine voice (9:35). It is interesting how Jesus’ identity as the son of God is revealed only by non-human characters in the story.

The Gentiles

Fig. 12.28: “Simeon with the Infant Jesus,” Petr Jan Brandl, after 1725. National Gallery, Prague.

As the second Adam, Jesus brings salvation to the world. While it is extended to the Jews, the emphasis is clearly on the Gentiles, such as the Samaritans (10:29-37; 17:16), the widow of Zarephath in Sidon, and Naaman the Syrian (4:25-27). This is a departure from Matthew’s focus on the restoration of Israel (10:6; 15:24). The emphasis on the Gentiles is especially pronounced in the early part of the Gospel where Jesus’ identity and mission are initially described. Consider three examples. First, when the angels announce the birth of Jesus to the shepherds, they proclaim peace to all humanity, not specifically to the Jews (2:14). Second, while holding Jesus in his arms, Simeon praises God saying, “my eyes have seen your salvation” (2:30) and delights that the Christ child is “a light for the revelation to the Gentiles and the glory of your people Israel” (2:32). 

The third example is particularly interesting when it is set alongside the other Synoptic Gospels. All three Gospels quote Isa 40:3 in relation to the ministry of John the Baptist, but only Luke extends the quotation to Isa 40:5, which contains the pivotal phrase “And all flesh will see the salvation of God.” 

Fig. 12.29: Click to enlarge

Salvation in the Present

Salvation for Luke is not a phenomenon that is realized only in the future. It is available in the present and immediately to anyone who seeks to follow Jesus’ teachings. Jesus occasionally uses the term “today” when speaking about salvation. For example, in 4:21 Jesus astonishes his audience by declaring that the salvation passage in Isaiah 61 is “today” fulfilled. In 23:43 he assures the crucified person next to him, “Truly today you will be with me in Paradise.” 

Salvation in the present refers to a quality of life that is rooted in faith (better translated as faithfulness) as taught and exhibited by Jesus. People who believe in Jesus as God’s messiah, and are willing to forgo everything for him, experience life-changing phenomena, which take on a realism that was long anticipated by Jewish prognosticators. Salvation is the liberation from everyday bonds that prevented people from living in a fuller dignity and capacity, such as illnesses, demonic oppression, and starvation. Being set free from oppressive conditions allowed people to experience the kingdom of God, namely life in the way God envisions (e.g. 6:9-11; 8:34-39, 48, 50; 17:19; 18:42). The community of God takes on the quality of a just and loving household where everyone is accepted and has their basic necessities met. 

An example of Luke’s connection between faithfulness and salvation is found in the story of Zacchaeus who decides to give half of his possessions to the poor. Jesus responds unequivocally by saying, “Today salvation has come to this house” (19:9). Jesus more than likely did not mean that Zacchaeus was going to heaven on that day, but rather that he along with the recipients of the gifts were free to experience life in the way that God intended.

12.7.4 Jesus’ Death as Martyrdom

Salvation in Luke-Acts is not directly tied to atonement in the sense that Jesus dies for the sins of the world. There are certainly passages that imply atonement, such as Luke 23:18-25 where the innocent Jesus dies in the place of the guilty Barrabas. Most of the references to Jesus’ death, however, imply that Jesus was an innocent victim of miscarried justice. Jesus’ death and resurrection do not in themselves cause salvation in Luke-Acts. Throughout the Gospel, Jesus is obedient to God and deserving of vindication, which he inevitably receives in the resurrection. Salvation is more directly tied to Jesus’ innocence and obedience, especially in Acts. 

Peter’s speech to his fellow Jews in Acts 2 is a classic example of how the innocence of Jesus is connected with salvation. When Peter puts the blame of miscarried justice squarely on his Jewish audience, they were convicted and inquired how they might make amends for the evil they had done. Peter’s response is swift. He tells them that they must repent and be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ so that they could be forgiven and receive the Holy Spirit (2:38). Sorrow, repentance, and baptism are the immediate means of salvation—which is a salvation from guilt and due punishment. 

The recognition of guilt before God, even for those who were not present at Jesus’ trial, is the precursor to salvation. While the execution of Jesus as God’s agent is the ultimate expression of guilt, and hence sin, it serves as a powerful metaphor for all other sins. Luke makes the process from guilt to salvation clear. When people turn from their sin, repent, and join the Christian movement through baptism, they are forgiven and saved.

Fig. 12.30: Icon of the Centurion, 16th century. Historic Museum, Sanok, Poland.

From another vantage point, Jesus faces his death in Luke differently than in Mark. He faces it nobly as the righteous martyr who is innocent of any crime deserving death. Even the centurion acknowledges the injustice, and ironically subverts the Roman legal process, by proclaiming Jesus’ innocence. Instead of having the centurion revere him as son of God, as is the case in Mark (15:39), Luke has him praising God and declaring, “surely this man was innocent” (23:47). 

Some scholars have noticed similarities between Luke’s portrayal of Jesus’ passion and the righteous martyrs in early Jewish traditions, such as those depicted in 1 and 4 Maccabees (found in the Apocrypha), where devout Jews undergo torture and death in the face of vicious Seleucid oppression. During the Second Temple period it was believed that this kind of righteous suffering and martyrdom for the sake of the faith affected the salvation of others. The martyrs were hailed as sacrificial victims whose blood had atoning value. This so-called vicarious suffering, which is later picked up by Christians, may be rooted in Jewish interpretations of the sacrifice of Isaac in Genesis 22. 

Info Box 12.7: 4 Macc 17:17-22 provides one of the best examples of righteous martyrdom in early Jewish literature. 

The tyrant himself and all his council marveled at their endurance, because of which they now stand before the divine throne and live the life of eternal blessedness. For Moses says, “All who are consecrated are under your hands.” These, then, who have been consecrated for the sake of God, are honored, not only with this honor, but also by the fact that because of them our enemies did not rule over our nation, the tyrant was punished, and the homeland purified—they having become, as it were, a ransom for the sin of our nation. And through the blood of those devout ones and their death as an atoning sacrifice, divine Providence preserved Israel that previously had been mistreated (NRSV).

12.7.5 Hellenistic Images of Jesus

Despite Luke’s emphasis on the Gentiles, he does not shy away from portraying Jesus by using the same Jewish categories as the other evangelists, particularly “Messiah” (9:20), “Son of Man” (22:69), “the prophet like Moses” (Acts 3:22), and “the fulfillment of Jewish prophecy” (22:37). 

Alongside the Jewish categories, Luke draws upon several images from the Greco-Roman world to help his Gentile readers better understand Jesus’ identity. Luke’s frequency and variety are unmatched by the other evangelists. 

First, Jesus is presented as a divine philosopher or “holy man.” Greco-Roman biographies of divine philosophers attributed divine qualities in varying degrees to their subjects. Some were characterized as sons of gods, which implied divine parentage (e.g. like Apollonius of Tyana and Pythagoras), whereas others were deemed godlike (e.g. Plotinus) because they were gifted beyond ordinary men, despite their human parentage. Divine philosophers were often portrayed as wandering teachers who gathered disciples. Temporary stops along journeys were often used as venues for the propagation of the philosopher‘s ideas. After their master’s death, the disciples dispersed to carry on the teaching. Luke similarly presents Jesus as a wandering teacher who challenges prevailing norms, gathers disciples, and spreads his teachings. A considerable part of the Gospel is a travel narrative from Galilee to Jerusalem (9:51–19:40), which provides for plenty of opportunity for teaching. The book of Acts can also be viewed in light of these biographies as the continuation of the philosopher’s teaching by his successors.

Fig. 12.31: Early catacomb art depicting Jesus as a Roman teacher, 4th century. Catacomb of Domitilla, Rome.

Fig. 12.32: Coin of Hadrian and the supreme god and lord of heaven Serapis, who was a composite of Osiris and Apis in the Ptolemaic period and received popularity in the 1st century around the Roman Empire. 133-34 CE. 

Second, Jesus is presented as a benefactor. In Hellenistic tradition, benefactors were kings who regarded their roles as just guardians of their subjects. Several Hellenistic inscriptions associate the benefactor with a god. For example, in Egypt Pompey III (also called Euergetes, which in Greek is a benefactor) along with his sister Berenice II were known as “benefactor gods.” In Roman society, benefactors were public figures who were honored for providing some kind of benefit (e.g. bringing peace or prosperity) for a group of people, usually the residents of a city. In Luke, Jesus not only criticizes the actions of the benefactors, but also subtly takes on their role. Luke attributes to Jesus a customary attribute of consistency between word and deed (24:19) and the bringing of peace (1:79; 2:14, 29). Luke also describes Jesus as the savior of the world, which was customarily attributed only to the emperor, who was the ultimate benefactor of the empire. Finally, in Acts 10:38, Jesus is explicitly identified as one who “went about as a benefactor (euergetes).”

Fig. 12.33: Replica of the Portland Vase depicting Augustus’ mother Atia with Apollo in human form and snake form. Quitinus-Romulus is on the left. Originally made 30-20 BCE. British Museum.

Third, Jesus is presented as an immortal hero rooted in the Greco-Roman mythological tradition. In Greek and Roman mythologies, immortal heroes are sometimes described as the offspring of a human mother and a divine father. Although the stories were not always told the same way, the combination of human and divine parentage of heroes was a common theme throughout not only the Mediterranean basin, but across the south Asian continent. Some of the examples that have survived in Greco-Roman literature refer to Augustus as the child of Apollo and Atia, Asclepius as the son of Apollo and the daughter of King Phlegyas, Plato as the son of Apollo and Perictione, Dionysus as the son of Zeus and Semele, Helen of Troy as the daughter of Zeus and Leda, Orpheus as the son of Apollo and Calliope, Perseus as the son of Zeus and Danae, and Alexander the Great as the son of Zeus and Olympias. These hero figures were able to perform extraordinary feats, often benefiting their subjects or followers. After they died, some were said to have ascended to Mount Olympus, where they continued to maintain an interest in human affairs, sometimes even to the point of direct intervention. 

Fig. 12.34: Catacomb wall painting of Heracles (middle) bringing Alcestis back from death, 4th century. Via Latina Catacomb, Rome.

Finally, the image of the righteous martyr in early Jewish thought, which was described above, has parallels in pagan literature. Since Luke was probably familiar with Greco-Roman literature, it is entirely possible that accounts of vicarious sufferers played a role in his theological reflections, though there are no direct quotations or allusions to such in Luke-Acts. One of these accounts, which parallels the theme of Jesus as the righteous martyr (especially the execution of Jesus instead of Barabbas in 23:18-25) is found in Euripides’ Athenian tragedy Alcestis, probably first performed in 438 BCE. The story is about a king named Admetus whose destiny was to die at a young age. At the intervention of Apollo, the king is spared by the Fates, but a deal is struck that another must die in his place. Shockingly, Admetus’ beautiful wife Alcestis volunteers to be the sacrifice so that no one else in the kingdom would die. After her death the god Heracles comforts the stricken Admetus by rescuing his wife from death. When they are united, she cannot speak for three days until she is purified and fully restored. 

When Luke’s portrayal of Jesus is read alongside the Greco-Roman mythological tradition—namely his birth, youth, miracles, resurrection, and ascension—several interesting parallels emerge. Without discounting the numerous differences, the similarities suggest that Luke wanted his audience to understand that Jesus is no ordinary human being. Rather, his identity as the son of God and his vocation as the savior of the world extends even beyond the heroes that would have been familiar to Luke’s Gentile audience. In short, Luke uses the language of his culture to convey his lofty portrayal of Jesus. 

Fig's. 12.35-36: Helios the sun god on Athenian red-figure krater, 5th century BCE. British Museum, London. Fig's. 12.37-38: Jesus portrayed as the sun god Helios (Apollo), 3rd century. St. Peter‘s Basilica, Rome.

12.7.6 Affirmation of the World

Luke (along with Acts) is perhaps the least apocalyptic writing in the New Testament. In contrast to the other Gospels, there is very little concern for the end of the age or the return of Christ. Many have pointed out that while Mark places the ministry of Jesus at the end of time, Luke places it in the middle of time (e.g. 12:38, 45; 19:11; and 21:24). For Luke, the dawn of the church age, as it is developed in Acts, is the beginning of a new era of salvation that now extends to the world. Luke believes that the return of Christ will surely happen, but it is far from imminent. 

As the potential object of salvation, the world is portrayed positively. The empire and its culture are not the instruments or location of Satan, but the safe domain for the establishment of the Church. The unconverted are not regarded as enemies. Instead, they are regarded as kind, open-minded, and intelligent. Christianity and culture are more compatible in Luke than in the other Gospels. 

One of the ways in which Luke fuses Christianity and culture is through his frequent mention of food and dining. Luke mentions nineteen meals (13 of which are unique to Luke). Not only does Jesus dine frequently (e.g. 5:29; 7:36; 14:1; 22:14; 24:30), he is accused of being a glutton, a drunkard, and one who dines with the wrong people (such as tax collectors). An occasional use of banquet imagery is also found in parables (e.g. 7:44-46; 14:7-24; 22:26-27). In Acts, meals take on a theological dimension. They become the venue for gathering, fellowship, worship, and even the appearances of the risen Christ.

Fig. 12.39: Wall painting of Roman family banquet, 1st century. Pompeii.

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